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She swiped right and wants to meet up. Soon, you’ve both had a few drinks and dim the lights. Suddenly, the mood shifts: she pulls back, puts a hand up, even says no.

Do you respect your date’s refusal? Research from ��������’s Psychology Department sheds light on which men might choose to ignore a lack of consent and why.

“Does No Mean No? Situational and Dispositional Factors Influence Emerging Adult Men’s Intentions to Use Assault in Response to Women’s Sexual Refusal During Hookups” was recently published in the journal Sexual Abuse. Authors include �������� doctoral candidate Allison M. McKinnon, Psychology Professor Richard E. Mattson and Ashton M. Lofgreen of Chicago’s Rush University Medical Center.

Their research explores how men make decisions in high-risk sexual situations, which could potentially offer insights into prevention.

“We found that adherence to cultural myths about what constitutes rape was the strongest predictor of assaultive behavior, even controlling for other personality factors,” Mattson said. “We may, therefore, be able to curtail some assaults by dispelling these myths through education.”

However, underlying beliefs or the particulars of a situation form only part of the picture. The risk for sexual assault is even more strongly linked to who a man actually is in terms of personality — a factor that may be less amenable to change.

Which men present a risk?

The researchers focus on “emerging adults,” a category that ranges from the late teens to the mid-to-late 20s. Individuals in this age range are more likely to find themselves in higher-risk sexual situations, such as hookups, rather than long-term, exclusive sexual relationships, Mattson explained. It’s also a time when individuals are still developing beliefs and behaviors related to sex, making them more amenable to intervention.

When approaching sensitive topics such as rape, researchers ask about specific behaviors in given situations and also assess and correct for a subject’s tendency to report in socially desirable ways. While a small subgroup of likely perpetrators underreport their actual risk level, men typically have few problems reporting rape in research studies, Mattson acknowledged.

“A high proportion of men report that they would commit a considerably violent rape if they could be assured that they would not get caught,” he said. “This may sound surprising, but the men that are likeliest to commit rape also tend to carry traits that make their reporting less surprising, like high levels of impulsivity and adherence to hypermasculine ideologies that see nothing wrong with male sexual dominion.”

During the study, 420 college-age men were presented with six random vignettes that depicted a hookup, and various forms of sexual refusal — verbal, nonverbal and a combination of the two.

According to their findings, factors that predispose men to sexual assault include rigid adherence to traditional gender roles, which assume male dominance; personalities that exhibit a callous disregard for others; sexism, whether overtly hostile or benevolent; and low empathy. Other factors include a belief in rape myths and ideologies that promote social dominance, such as right-wing authoritarianism.

Many of these factors overlap, Mattson pointed out; someone who believes that manhood is demonstrated through heterosexual conquest is also more likely to believe the myth that it’s not rape if the victim doesn’t fight back.

There is also a small correlation between a preference for impersonal sexual liaisons and sexual assault. Individuals with psychopathic traits tend to avoid emotional intimacy and favor impersonal sex, as do hypermasculine men, Mattson said.

“We found that men’s sexual decisions varied more from man-to-man than for a given man across different scenarios,” Mattson said. “Stated plainly, our findings suggest that the use of sexual assault tactics appears to be more about who the man is characterologically rather than the particulars of the sexual situation in which he is found.”

The only aspect of the situation that reliably mattered was the level of sexual intimacy at the time the partner gave her refusal, Mattson said.

While clear, direct communication about sex is important, the findings suggest that the power of no isn’t absolute; its influence on men’s decision-making wanes as the level of intimacy ramps up. Because the study centers on hypothetical vignettes —essentially, a thought experiment — you can’t attribute this phenomenon to physiological arousal.

Seeing the red flags

Not all men pose sexual dangers, Mattson stressed; a sizeable subgroup of study subjects respected a woman’s refusal and reported that they wouldn’t pressure or coerce her in any way. However, even some of the “nice guys” were susceptible to prevailing rape myths, suggesting that education may play an important role in preventing sexual transgressions.

Unless you know someone well, it may be challenging to figure out whether they believe rape myths or have psychopathic traits. Hypermasculinity, however, tends to be performative and may be easier to spot, Mattson said.

Many troubling characteristics have a common theme: a need for self-serving hierarchical relationships, so pay attention to how he treats his friends and other people around him. People with psychopathic traits sometimes present as charming and have no reservations about lying to gain trust, making them trickier to weed out.

On the law enforcement and policy front, it’s important to know that a subset of men is likely to be sexually transgressive regardless of the situation, Mattson pointed out. Sex education campaigns that focus on the need for affirmative consent are unlikely to sway these individuals, who often aren’t held accountable due to roadblocks in reporting and prosecuting sexual assault. What can help is outreach to victims, lessening their feelings of shame and self-blame while encouraging reporting and training third parties who are likely to interact with victims, such as emergency room staff, he said.

While the study focused on heterosexual sex and casual hookups, sexual violence spans both the gender spectrum and relationship type.

“Whether or not the effects we presently observed can help explain sexual violence in these other contexts is not entirely clear,” Mattson said. “Additional research that expands in these directions will therefore be important.”